Considerable attention has been recently given to possible transmission of SARS-CoV-2 via water media. This review addresses this issue and examines the fate of coronaviruses (CoVs) in water systems, with particular attention to the recently available information on the novel SARS-CoV-2. The methods for the determination of viable virus particles and quantification of CoVs and, in particular, of SARS-CoV-2 in water and wastewater are discussed with particular regard to the methods of concentration and to the emerging methods of detection. The analysis of the environmental stability of CoVs, with particular regard of SARS-CoV-2, and the efficacy of the disinfection methods are extensively reviewed as well. This information provides a broad view of the state-of-the-art for researchers involved in the investigation of CoVs in aquatic systems, and poses the basis for further analyses and discussions on the risk associated to the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in water media. The examined data indicates that detection of the virus in wastewater and natural water bodies provides a potentially powerful tool for quantitative microbiological risk assessment (QMRA) and for wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) for the evaluation of the level of circulation of the virus in a population. Assays of the viable virions in water media provide information on the integrity, capability of replication (in suitable host species) and on the potential infectivity. Challenges and critical issues relevant to the detection of coronaviruses in different water matrixes with both direct and surrogate methods as well as in the implementation of epidemiological tools are presented and critically discussed. Graphical Abstract ga1
【저자키워드】 SARS-CoV-2, coronavirus, Epidemiology, detection, Environment, Infectivity, wastewater, persistence, viable virus, Disinfection, FBS, fetal bovine serum, RdRp, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, CRISPR, Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, Concentration, MERS, Middle East respiratory syndrome, PCR, polymerase chain reaction, WHO, World Health Organization, drinking water, CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CoV, coronavirus, SARS-COV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2, RNA, Ribonucleic acid, RT-PCR, Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, hazards, MHV, murine hepatitis virus, COVID-19, coronavirus disease 19, S, spike protein, PBS, phosphate-buffered saline, FIPV, feline infectious peritonitis virus, TGEV, transmissible gastroenteritis virus, CPE, cytopathic effects, BSL, biosafety level, N, nucleocapsid protein, MEM, minimal essential medium, qPCR, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, M, Membrane protein, E, Envelope protein, µPAD, microfluidic paper analytic device, CCoV, canine coronavirus, ddPCR, droplet digital polymerase chain reaction, DMEM, Dulbecco minimal essential medium, dPCR, digital polymerase chain reaction, EPA, United States Environmental Protection Agency, FET, field-effect transistor, ICC-MS, integrated cell culture-mass spectrometry, MBRs, membrane bioreactors, MPAD, Multiplex Paired-Antibody Amplified Detection, MS, mass spectrometry, MWCO, molecular weight cut-off, NoV, noroviruses, OSHA, United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration, PEG, poly(ethylene glycol), PS, polystyrene, QMRA, quantitative microbiological risk assessment, RIVM, Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu, rRT-LAMP, real-time reverse transcription loop mediated isothermal amplification, RT-ddPCR, reverse transcription droplet digital polymerase chain reaction, RT-LAMP, reverse transcription loop mediated isothermal amplification, SARI, Sorveglianza Ambientale Reflue in Italia, TCID50, tissue culture infectious dose-50, UV, ultraviolet radiation, VIRADEL, virus adsorption-elution, WBE, wastewater-based epidemiology, WWTP, wastewater treatment plant,