Prevalence and Genotyping of Chlamydia psittaci from Domestic Waterfowl, Companion Birds, and Wild Birds in Taiwan

Chlamydia psittaci , the causative agent of avian chlamydiosis, an important zoonotic disease, infects a wide range of birds. Infected birds, whether symptomatic or asymptomatic, intermittently shed the agent through respiratory and intestinal routes. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the epizootiology of C. psittaci in poultry, pet birds, and wild birds. In this study, cloacal or fecal swabs collected from domestic waterfowl, psittacine birds, Columbidae, and wild birds were used to determine the prevalence of C. psittaci in Taiwan between 2014 and 2017. The C. psittaci infection rate was as high as 34.2% among domestic waterfowl farms. The waterfowl isolates clustered into two groups based on ompA phylogeny: one group (G1-like) clustered with the Polish G1 strains; the other group (waterfowl-TW) clustered near, but independently from, the classical ABE genotype cluster. Separately, 3.1% of parrot samples tested positive for C. psittaci belonging to genotype A. C. psittaci isolates of genotype B were detected in 10.1% of racing pigeons and other Columbidae. Wild bird samples from a wildlife refuge had a 2.2% prevalence rate; among these, two atypical C. psittaci genotypes were detected in samples from a Malayan night heron ( Gorsachius melanolophus ) and a Taiwan barbet ( Megalaima nuchalis ). Taken together, our results revealed that the risk of C. psittaci transmission from domestic waterfowl and Columbidae birds to humans could be underestimated, given the high prevalence rates in these birds. Furthermore, the free-range rearing system of waterfowl in Taiwan may promote C. psittaci transmission between poultry and wild birds. Pet birds and racing pigeons, which are in close contact with people, are also possible sources for cross-species transmission. Further studies are necessary to elucidate the virulence, biological and genetic characteristics, and modes of transmission of Taiwanese C. psittaci isolates to facilitate the prevention and control of C. psittaci infection.