Quantification of anti-parasite and anti-disease immunity to malaria as a function of age and exposure

Fundamental gaps remain in our understanding of how immunity to malaria develops. We used detailed clinical and entomological data from parallel cohort studies conducted across the malaria transmission spectrum in Uganda to quantify the development of immunity against symptomatic P. falciparum as a function of age and transmission intensity. We focus on: anti-parasite immunity (i.e. ability to control parasite densities) and anti-disease immunity (i.e. ability to tolerate higher parasite densities without fever). Our findings suggest a strong effect of age on both types of immunity, not explained by cumulative-exposure. They also show an independent effect of exposure, where children living in moderate/high transmission settings develop immunity faster as transmission increases. Surprisingly, children in the lowest transmission setting appear to develop immunity more efficiently than those living in moderate transmission settings. Anti-parasite and anti-disease immunity develop in parallel, reducing the probability of experiencing symptomatic malaria upon each subsequent P. falciparum infection. eLife digest Malaria kills around 500,000 children every year. The disease occurs when an infected mosquito bites a human and passes on a Plasmodium parasite. One parasite in particular, Plasmodium falciparum , is responsible for most malaria-related deaths across the globe. A person can be infected by P. falciparum many times throughout their life. However, after children have had multiple infections, they become less likely to develop symptoms of malaria, such as high fever. In other words, they gradually acquire immunity. This immunity to malaria can come in two forms: “anti-parasite immunity”, where the body fights the parasites and keeps their numbers low; and “anti-disease immunity”, where the body is more likely to tolerate an infection without developing a fever. To date, scientists do not fully understand how either kind of immunity arises in children. Is it because they have simply been exposed to more malaria? Or does being older and having a more mature immune system also help? Now, Rodriguez-Barraquer et al. have followed more than 1,000 children living in places with high, moderate and low rates of malaria infection in Uganda. Over three years, regular blood samples were taken to see if the children were infected with P. falciparum . Mosquitoes were also collected from their houses to estimate how often the children were being bitten and infected. Using this information, Rodriguez-Barraquer et al. studied the different factors that affect how children develop anti-parasite and anti-disease immunity. Both types of immunity develop differently in places with high, moderate and low rates of infection, so being infected multiple times is important. Yet, the findings also show that growing older itself contributes to the development of immunity regardless of how often a child is infected. Children who get infected most often – in other words, those living in houses with the most mosquitoes – develop immunity faster than those who get infected at a moderate rate. Unexpectedly, however, children living in places with low rates of infection also develop immunity faster than those living in places with moderate rates. Understanding how children acquire immunity to malaria is important for people trying to control the disease. These results suggest that reducing rates of infection to very low levels may not interfere with development of immunity and may even improve it. However, future research should see if these findings apply to other parts of the world as well, and, if so, why children develop immunity faster in places with lower rates of malaria infection.